AGING
Labels Aging
- What is Aging?
- Aging and Child Development.
- Aging after Young Adulthood.
- Aging Populations in Modern Times.
Showing posts with label Aging. Show all posts
Showing posts with label Aging. Show all posts
Labels Aging
What is Aging?
Aging is the accumulation of changes in a living organism over time. Most
organisms have a predictable pattern of development and an easily established
life expectancy. However, with humans, the patterns of development and
life expectancy itself have been throughout the ages subject to a wide range
of threatening environmental and social conditions that came under some
control only in the 19th and 20th centuries. Disease has always been one
of the greatest environmental threats. Military action, slavery, and other
forms of physical cruelty affect life expectancy. As disease is eradicated, diet
is improved and the social threats are ameliorated, human life expectancy
tends to increase proportionately. Nevertheless, new environmental and
social threats continue to evolve. Diseases such as AIDS *, Ebola virus,
avian flu, and epidemic metabolic syndrome, along with climate change
and habitat reduction forcing hostilities over diminishing resources, are
21st-century threats to human life expectancy. In the early 2000s, the
refusal of nuclear powers, including the United States, to seriously limit
the deployment of nuclear weapons while continuing to use military force
to exercise global strategies in the interest of their perceived needs represents
another real threat to human longevity.
Jerry and Saba at 32
organisms have a predictable pattern of development and an easily established
life expectancy. However, with humans, the patterns of development and
life expectancy itself have been throughout the ages subject to a wide range
of threatening environmental and social conditions that came under some
control only in the 19th and 20th centuries. Disease has always been one
of the greatest environmental threats. Military action, slavery, and other
forms of physical cruelty affect life expectancy. As disease is eradicated, diet
is improved and the social threats are ameliorated, human life expectancy
tends to increase proportionately. Nevertheless, new environmental and
social threats continue to evolve. Diseases such as AIDS *, Ebola virus,
avian flu, and epidemic metabolic syndrome, along with climate change
and habitat reduction forcing hostilities over diminishing resources, are
21st-century threats to human life expectancy. In the early 2000s, the
refusal of nuclear powers, including the United States, to seriously limit
the deployment of nuclear weapons while continuing to use military force
to exercise global strategies in the interest of their perceived needs represents
another real threat to human longevity.
Jerry and Saba at 32
Aging and Child Development
Biologically, aging begins with prenatal* development. The fetal period is
the time when the developing the fetus* gradually becomes a viable human
being that will be able to survive outside of the uterus*. The accumulated
successes of the prenatal period make it likely that a healthy infant will be
delivered and will grow in strength, mass, and physical ability for the next
25 to 30 years.
The first years of life are important for growth and the development
of vital functions. The changes that mark the first two years are rapid, and
they are of such importance that any delay in any area of growth or development
can be detrimental. The pediatricians who care for the newborn
encourage regular monthly check-ups to make sure that the baby’s growth
and attainment of developmental milestones are normal. Because the
baby changes so much from week to week, aging in infancy is measured in
months (as compared to years in older children and adults). Some childhood
behavioral assessments, such as the Revised Gesell Developmental
Schedules, use months as the benchmarks for children under five years of
age. The developers of these schedules note the maturational changes in
abilities and behaviors that occur each month in the first five years.
Changes in a child’s psychological profile are first noted in the initial
months of a child’s life. As the physical senses become more acute and the
perceptions of sensory stimuli become more accurate, the child begins
to make better sense of the world. One milestone taking place at around
eight months is the development of depth perception. A baby needs
about one month of crawling experience to understand that the world is
three-dimensional. A seven-month-old baby who has just started crawling
will take some risks with stairs or other possibilities for a tumble that an
eight-month-old is likely to avoid. Around 15 months, the baby develops
some self-awareness, as noted by the baby’s recognizing that the image
in the mirror is a reflection of self. Communication skills begin long
before the first words, with cries, gestures, and babbling. After two years
of age, the baby makes rapid strides with respect to language proficiency.
The social expectation in infancy is the bonding between the baby
and the primary caregiver who is usually the mother. This bonding,
known as attachment, is very important for the child’s psychosocial development.
It begins with the mother’s responding to the infant’s needs in
a way that assures the infant that life is meaningful and that the world is
predictable.
Childhood, as a period of aging, extends from age two until puberty*.
During this time the child grows continuously. Before the growth spurt
associated with puberty, an average child will achieve about 85 percent of
adult height. During childhood, the child becomes more adept at gross
motor skills (such as those used in sports) and fine motor skills (such as
those used in drawing or writing).
Psychologically, childhood is the time during which a person begins
to develop self-reliance. The child also recognizes similarities and differences
between self and others and begins to develop a self-concept. New
mental abilities enable the child to learn what is taught at school and in
other social settings. What is taught and what is seen as important to
the child’s development and education are culturally and environmentally
determined.
In the social domain, children begin spending time outside the home
and, therefore, have to learn to make friends. As they grow, their concept
of friendship evolves. Preschool children accept any playmate as a friend,
but as children grow older, they become selective. They also have to learn
rules of society. As children generally like to experiment with new surroundings
and new opportunities, they inevitably come to realize that
their actions and choices have consequences.
Adolescence is a time of rapid change in all three domains. Physically,
the adolescent is changing from a child to an adult. The onset of puberty,
accompanied by a growth spurt (coming a little earlier for girls than for
boys), is the time at which the physical body first becomes capable of
sexual reproduction. In addition to changes in reproductive organs and
reproductive functions, the secondary sexual characteristics, the traits that
distinguish the two sexes, begin to appear.
In the psychological domain, there is exploration of all kinds, as the adolescent
works to develop a sense of identity. It is important that adolescents
have positive exploratory experiences, and the hoped-for outcome is that
they have acquired a vocational goal, individual values, and a mature personality.
Adolescents are aided in this exploration by their more advanced
and more sophisticated cognitive abilities. In comparison to children, adolescents
are more capable of abstract thinking. For the first time in life,
they think about the future in a serious way. Young people at the threshold
of adult life are likely to be idealistic.
Socially, adolescents try to break away from the influence of their
parents. Peers become more important as adolescents tend to value their
perceptions and want their opinions and reactions. Adolescents are
required to maneuver in increasingly difficult environments. Their social
life can be especially rewarding at this time. However, it also can be difficult
and fraught with anxieties and conflict.
the time when the developing the fetus* gradually becomes a viable human
being that will be able to survive outside of the uterus*. The accumulated
successes of the prenatal period make it likely that a healthy infant will be
delivered and will grow in strength, mass, and physical ability for the next
25 to 30 years.
The first years of life are important for growth and the development
of vital functions. The changes that mark the first two years are rapid, and
they are of such importance that any delay in any area of growth or development
can be detrimental. The pediatricians who care for the newborn
encourage regular monthly check-ups to make sure that the baby’s growth
and attainment of developmental milestones are normal. Because the
baby changes so much from week to week, aging in infancy is measured in
months (as compared to years in older children and adults). Some childhood
behavioral assessments, such as the Revised Gesell Developmental
Schedules, use months as the benchmarks for children under five years of
age. The developers of these schedules note the maturational changes in
abilities and behaviors that occur each month in the first five years.
Changes in a child’s psychological profile are first noted in the initial
months of a child’s life. As the physical senses become more acute and the
perceptions of sensory stimuli become more accurate, the child begins
to make better sense of the world. One milestone taking place at around
eight months is the development of depth perception. A baby needs
about one month of crawling experience to understand that the world is
three-dimensional. A seven-month-old baby who has just started crawling
will take some risks with stairs or other possibilities for a tumble that an
eight-month-old is likely to avoid. Around 15 months, the baby develops
some self-awareness, as noted by the baby’s recognizing that the image
in the mirror is a reflection of self. Communication skills begin long
before the first words, with cries, gestures, and babbling. After two years
of age, the baby makes rapid strides with respect to language proficiency.
The social expectation in infancy is the bonding between the baby
and the primary caregiver who is usually the mother. This bonding,
known as attachment, is very important for the child’s psychosocial development.
It begins with the mother’s responding to the infant’s needs in
a way that assures the infant that life is meaningful and that the world is
predictable.
Childhood, as a period of aging, extends from age two until puberty*.
During this time the child grows continuously. Before the growth spurt
associated with puberty, an average child will achieve about 85 percent of
adult height. During childhood, the child becomes more adept at gross
motor skills (such as those used in sports) and fine motor skills (such as
those used in drawing or writing).
Psychologically, childhood is the time during which a person begins
to develop self-reliance. The child also recognizes similarities and differences
between self and others and begins to develop a self-concept. New
mental abilities enable the child to learn what is taught at school and in
other social settings. What is taught and what is seen as important to
the child’s development and education are culturally and environmentally
determined.
In the social domain, children begin spending time outside the home
and, therefore, have to learn to make friends. As they grow, their concept
of friendship evolves. Preschool children accept any playmate as a friend,
but as children grow older, they become selective. They also have to learn
rules of society. As children generally like to experiment with new surroundings
and new opportunities, they inevitably come to realize that
their actions and choices have consequences.
Adolescence is a time of rapid change in all three domains. Physically,
the adolescent is changing from a child to an adult. The onset of puberty,
accompanied by a growth spurt (coming a little earlier for girls than for
boys), is the time at which the physical body first becomes capable of
sexual reproduction. In addition to changes in reproductive organs and
reproductive functions, the secondary sexual characteristics, the traits that
distinguish the two sexes, begin to appear.
In the psychological domain, there is exploration of all kinds, as the adolescent
works to develop a sense of identity. It is important that adolescents
have positive exploratory experiences, and the hoped-for outcome is that
they have acquired a vocational goal, individual values, and a mature personality.
Adolescents are aided in this exploration by their more advanced
and more sophisticated cognitive abilities. In comparison to children, adolescents
are more capable of abstract thinking. For the first time in life,
they think about the future in a serious way. Young people at the threshold
of adult life are likely to be idealistic.
Socially, adolescents try to break away from the influence of their
parents. Peers become more important as adolescents tend to value their
perceptions and want their opinions and reactions. Adolescents are
required to maneuver in increasingly difficult environments. Their social
life can be especially rewarding at this time. However, it also can be difficult
and fraught with anxieties and conflict.
Aging after Young Adulthood
After adolescence, the physical body continues to grow stronger, reaching
a peak or plateau between 25 and 30 years of age. Starting in one’s
thirties, the slow degeneration of the physical body that is part of the
aging process begins. While adults gradually lose physical abilities, overall
mental abilities tend to increase through middle age. In general, overall
mental abilities do not diminish until the age of 65, the common age for
retirement. Whether the reduction in overall mental abilities owes more
to physical changes in the brain or to reduced mental exercise was still
debated as of 2009. The social effects of aging are often seen in how adults
draw satisfaction from their unique experiences rather than from novelty
and excitement, which the young often crave and regard as essential.
Many people like to think they can minimize the decline in physical
ability by maintaining a positive mental outlook. However, professional
athletes, for example, cannot deny that in middle age there is a sharp
decline in physical ability, agility, and endurance when compared to their
earlier peak performance. At the same time, there are middle-aged athletes
who perform better than younger people who have not made a habit of
daily exercise. Exercise and health patterns throughout life play an important
role in the maintenance of physical vigor in the years after the late
20s. After age 35, female reproduction capability decreases more sharply,
but men of comparable age do not have an equivalent decline in their
likelihood of becoming fathers. However, there is a distinct decline in the
number and quality of their sperm cells. Around the age of 50, women
enter menopause, which marks the end of their childbearing years.
While middle-aged people who maintain their health may reduce the
impact of age-related physical degeneration, the decline in sensory acuity
is unavoidable. Vision decline is slow between the ages of 30 and 70 years
of age, but after 70 it is more rapid. There is a similar trend for the sense
of smell where there is virtually no decline in middle age but a sharp
decline in the late 60s. Hearing has a steady decline every ten years from
age 30 to 60 when the decline becomes steeper. The body begins responding
less effectively to stress. The risk of many diseases starts to increase.
In the elderly, there is a higher incidence of dementia*. In many
elderly people, dementia is attributable to brain injury. The dementia may
represent the accumulated effects of alcoholism, the presence of ministrokes,
or a brain tumor*. A common form on dementia is Alzheimer’s
(ALTS-hy-merz) disease*.
From middle age onward, human neural processing starts slowing
down, and in particular, people’s reaction time, perceptual accuracy, and
ability to perform memory tasks. Brain size changes with age, so that an
80-year-old’s brain is on average about 10 percent smaller than it was at age
20. The areas of the brain most affected by this loss are the ones associated
with memory. However, it appears that being mentally active can counter
this trend as it is likely that mental activity encourages the growth of new
neurons and synaptic connections. There is evidence that maintaining a
physical exercise regimen throughout one’s life, just as it contributes to
one’s physical agility, contributes to one’s mental agility later in life.
One popular assumption in the United States is that growing older is
negative and that it is associated with increased difficulties and decreased
intelligence. Conclusive evidence for reduced overall intelligence as part
of the aging process has not been established. When a group of people
take an intelligence test at the same time, the younger test-takers tend
to do better than the older ones, which suggests an inverse relationship
between age and test-taking ability. This would seem to suggest that as
people age, they tend to lose intellectual capabilities. However, in longitudinal
studies, where the same people are given intelligence tests many
times over a long period of time, there is no decrease in intelligence. In
fact, there appears to be an increase in intellectual functioning in middle
age, which only starts to decline at around age 65.
There is some decline in the ability to perform memory tasks for
older people, particularly in recall tasks. If an older person and a younger
person are asked to repeat the name of someone they both just met, the
older person is less likely to remember than a younger person is. However,
in recognition tasks, there is little difference between old and young.
Therefore, if the older and younger persons are given a list of names and
asked which one was the name of the person just met, they are equally
likely to recognize the name. What has been called crystallized memory
stays strong throughout the life of a healthy person. This memory involves
recalling facts and knowledge accumulated over the years. However, fluid
memory declines with age. This kind of memory pertains to quick decision-
making and logic tasks. This decline is slowed, however, in people
who practice logic problems regularly.
With regard to the social aspect of midlife aging, one misconception
needs dispelling: the midlife crisis. Many people expect that middle age
will be a period of bigger problems and less satisfaction. However, there is
no scientific justification for such an expectation. On average, there is no
increased emotional instability in midlife. Also, there is no decrease in the
measure of life satisfaction associated with middle age and old age.
According to the psychologist Erik Erikson (1902–1994), much psychosocial
development continues in adulthood and late life. Typically,
young adults are focused on finding a mate; middle-aged adults, on leaving
something behind for future generations; and people in late life, on
seeking validation that their lives have been meaningful. Those who marry
and have children eventually experience an empty nest, when the children
grow up and begin separate lives of their own. For many people, this transition
is happy, as a new milestone is being passed.
Death is the ultimate effect of aging. People tend to accept death in
different ways based on their personal, religious, and cultural views. Grief
is an individual experience; there is no model for grief that all individuals
follow.
a peak or plateau between 25 and 30 years of age. Starting in one’s
thirties, the slow degeneration of the physical body that is part of the
aging process begins. While adults gradually lose physical abilities, overall
mental abilities tend to increase through middle age. In general, overall
mental abilities do not diminish until the age of 65, the common age for
retirement. Whether the reduction in overall mental abilities owes more
to physical changes in the brain or to reduced mental exercise was still
debated as of 2009. The social effects of aging are often seen in how adults
draw satisfaction from their unique experiences rather than from novelty
and excitement, which the young often crave and regard as essential.
Many people like to think they can minimize the decline in physical
ability by maintaining a positive mental outlook. However, professional
athletes, for example, cannot deny that in middle age there is a sharp
decline in physical ability, agility, and endurance when compared to their
earlier peak performance. At the same time, there are middle-aged athletes
who perform better than younger people who have not made a habit of
daily exercise. Exercise and health patterns throughout life play an important
role in the maintenance of physical vigor in the years after the late
20s. After age 35, female reproduction capability decreases more sharply,
but men of comparable age do not have an equivalent decline in their
likelihood of becoming fathers. However, there is a distinct decline in the
number and quality of their sperm cells. Around the age of 50, women
enter menopause, which marks the end of their childbearing years.
While middle-aged people who maintain their health may reduce the
impact of age-related physical degeneration, the decline in sensory acuity
is unavoidable. Vision decline is slow between the ages of 30 and 70 years
of age, but after 70 it is more rapid. There is a similar trend for the sense
of smell where there is virtually no decline in middle age but a sharp
decline in the late 60s. Hearing has a steady decline every ten years from
age 30 to 60 when the decline becomes steeper. The body begins responding
less effectively to stress. The risk of many diseases starts to increase.
In the elderly, there is a higher incidence of dementia*. In many
elderly people, dementia is attributable to brain injury. The dementia may
represent the accumulated effects of alcoholism, the presence of ministrokes,
or a brain tumor*. A common form on dementia is Alzheimer’s
(ALTS-hy-merz) disease*.
From middle age onward, human neural processing starts slowing
down, and in particular, people’s reaction time, perceptual accuracy, and
ability to perform memory tasks. Brain size changes with age, so that an
80-year-old’s brain is on average about 10 percent smaller than it was at age
20. The areas of the brain most affected by this loss are the ones associated
with memory. However, it appears that being mentally active can counter
this trend as it is likely that mental activity encourages the growth of new
neurons and synaptic connections. There is evidence that maintaining a
physical exercise regimen throughout one’s life, just as it contributes to
one’s physical agility, contributes to one’s mental agility later in life.
One popular assumption in the United States is that growing older is
negative and that it is associated with increased difficulties and decreased
intelligence. Conclusive evidence for reduced overall intelligence as part
of the aging process has not been established. When a group of people
take an intelligence test at the same time, the younger test-takers tend
to do better than the older ones, which suggests an inverse relationship
between age and test-taking ability. This would seem to suggest that as
people age, they tend to lose intellectual capabilities. However, in longitudinal
studies, where the same people are given intelligence tests many
times over a long period of time, there is no decrease in intelligence. In
fact, there appears to be an increase in intellectual functioning in middle
age, which only starts to decline at around age 65.
There is some decline in the ability to perform memory tasks for
older people, particularly in recall tasks. If an older person and a younger
person are asked to repeat the name of someone they both just met, the
older person is less likely to remember than a younger person is. However,
in recognition tasks, there is little difference between old and young.
Therefore, if the older and younger persons are given a list of names and
asked which one was the name of the person just met, they are equally
likely to recognize the name. What has been called crystallized memory
stays strong throughout the life of a healthy person. This memory involves
recalling facts and knowledge accumulated over the years. However, fluid
memory declines with age. This kind of memory pertains to quick decision-
making and logic tasks. This decline is slowed, however, in people
who practice logic problems regularly.
With regard to the social aspect of midlife aging, one misconception
needs dispelling: the midlife crisis. Many people expect that middle age
will be a period of bigger problems and less satisfaction. However, there is
no scientific justification for such an expectation. On average, there is no
increased emotional instability in midlife. Also, there is no decrease in the
measure of life satisfaction associated with middle age and old age.
According to the psychologist Erik Erikson (1902–1994), much psychosocial
development continues in adulthood and late life. Typically,
young adults are focused on finding a mate; middle-aged adults, on leaving
something behind for future generations; and people in late life, on
seeking validation that their lives have been meaningful. Those who marry
and have children eventually experience an empty nest, when the children
grow up and begin separate lives of their own. For many people, this transition
is happy, as a new milestone is being passed.
Death is the ultimate effect of aging. People tend to accept death in
different ways based on their personal, religious, and cultural views. Grief
is an individual experience; there is no model for grief that all individuals
follow.
Aging Populations in Modern Times
While more people enjoy longer, more productive lives in the 21st century,
there are problems associated with an aging population. Due to better
living conditions, better medical treatments, and more nutritious eating
habits in modern times than in previous ages, the elderly populations of
many countries are increasing. At the same time, the birth rates for many
of these countries are decreasing. For the first time in human history, in
the United States and elsewhere as of the early 2000s, the population of
people over age 65 is greater than the population of children under the age
of five. It was anticipated that as middle-aged persons begin to retire there
will not be enough younger workers to take their places. Many national
social insurance systems, including the U.S. Social Security system, rely
on a relatively large working population to support a relatively small
retirement generation. The trend at the beginning of the 21st century
suggests the advent of a challenge to these systems. One benefit of better
health among the elderly is that workers may postpone retirement for
many years. However, the elderly will continue to need more health care,
and this burden on the healthcare systems of affected nations will increase
as the elderly live longer. As of 2009, many industrialized nations were
working on restructuring their healthcare and retirement systems to meet
anticipated increased demand.
there are problems associated with an aging population. Due to better
living conditions, better medical treatments, and more nutritious eating
habits in modern times than in previous ages, the elderly populations of
many countries are increasing. At the same time, the birth rates for many
of these countries are decreasing. For the first time in human history, in
the United States and elsewhere as of the early 2000s, the population of
people over age 65 is greater than the population of children under the age
of five. It was anticipated that as middle-aged persons begin to retire there
will not be enough younger workers to take their places. Many national
social insurance systems, including the U.S. Social Security system, rely
on a relatively large working population to support a relatively small
retirement generation. The trend at the beginning of the 21st century
suggests the advent of a challenge to these systems. One benefit of better
health among the elderly is that workers may postpone retirement for
many years. However, the elderly will continue to need more health care,
and this burden on the healthcare systems of affected nations will increase
as the elderly live longer. As of 2009, many industrialized nations were
working on restructuring their healthcare and retirement systems to meet
anticipated increased demand.
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